Terminology
When using ropes, understanding basic terminology is important. The terms explained in this section are the most commonly used in military mountaineering. Figure 4-2, page 4-4, illustrates some of these terms. a. Bight. A bight of rope is a simple bend of rope in which the rope does not cross itself. b. Loop. A loop is a bend of a rope in which the rope does cross itself. c. Half Hitch. A half hitch is a loop that runs around an object in such a manner as to lock or secure itself. d. Turn. A...
Recording Data
An accurate observation is essential in noting trends in weather patterns. Ideally, under changing conditions, trends will be noted in some weather parameters. However, this may not always be the case. A minor shift in the winds may signal an approaching storm. a. Wind Direction. Assess wind direction as a magnetic direction from which the wind is blowing. b. Wind Speed. Assess wind speed in knots. 1 If an anemometer is available, assess speed to the nearest knot. 2 If no anemometer is...
Operation Of The Rappel Point
Due to the inherent dangers of rappelling, special care must be taken to ensure a safe and successful descent. a. Communication. Climbers at the top of a rappel point must be able to communicate with those at the bottom. During a tactical rappel, radios, hand signals, and rope signals are considered. For training situations use the commands shown in Table 7-1. I am on belay and you may begin your rappel. I have completed the rappel, cleared the rappel lane, and am off the rope. Notes 1. In a...
Military Mountaineering Contents
CHAPTER 1. MOUNTAIN TERRAIN, WEATHER, AND HAZARDS Section I. Mountain 1-3. Rock and Slope 1-4. Rock 1-5. Mountain 1-6. Route 1-7. Cross-Country 1-8. Cover and 1-10. Fields of Section II. Mountain 1-11. Considerations for 1-12. Mountain 1-16. Cloud 1-17. Types of 1-20. Weather 1-21. Recording Section III. Mountain 1-22. Subjective 1-23. Objective 1-24. Weather 1-25. Avalanche DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION Approved for public release distribution is unlimited. This publication supersedes TC 90-6-1,...
Rock Classifications
Rock is classified by origin and mineral composition. a. Igneous Rocks. Deep within the earth's crust and mantle, internal heat, friction and radioactive decay creates magmas melts of silicate minerals that solidify into igneous rocks upon cooling. When the cooling occurs at depth, under pressure, and over time, the minerals in the magma crystallize slowly and develop well, making coarse-grained plutonic rock. The magma may move upward, propelled by its own lower density, either melting and...
Installation Using Zpulley Tightening System
The Z-pulley tightening system Figure 7-14 is another method for gaining a mechanical advantage. a. The rope is brought across the obstacle the same way as discussed in paragraph 7-10. b. Once across, the far side man anchors the rope. c. One soldier ties a friction knot autoblock, web wrap, Kleimheist with a sling rope onto the bridging rope on the near side bank. Two steel carabiners are inserted with opposing gates into the friction knot. d. The rope is routed around the near side anchor and...
Threeloop Bowline
The three-loop bowline is used to form three fixed loops in the middle of a rope Figure 4-24, page 4-26 . It is used in a self-equalizing anchor system. It is a specialty knot. a. Tying the Knot. STEP 1. Form an approximate 24-inch bight. STEP 2. With the right thumb facing toward the body, form a doubled loop in the standing part by turning the wrist clockwise. Lay the loops to the right. STEP 3. With the right hand, reach down through the loops and pull up a doubled bight from the standing...
Figureeight Bend
The figure-eight bend is used to join the ends of two ropes of equal or unequal diameter within 5-mm difference Figure 4-9, page 4-12 . a. Tying the Knot. STEP 1. Grasp the top of a 2-foot bight. STEP 2. With the other hand, grasp the running end short end and make a 360-degree turn around the standing end. STEP 3. Place the running end through the loop just formed creating an in-line figure eight. STEP 4. Route the running end of the other ripe back through the figure eight starting from the...
Bolts
Bolts are often used in fixed-rope installations and in aid climbing where cracks are not available. a. Bolts provide one of the most secure means of establishing protection. The rock should be inspected for evidence of crumbling, flaking, or cracking, and should be tested with a hammer. Emplacing a bolt with a hammer and a hand drill is a time-consuming and difficult process that requires drilling a hole in the rock deeper than the length of the bolt. This normally takes more than 20 minutes...
Setting Up A Belay
In rock climbing, climbers must sometimes make do with marginal protection placements along a route, but belay positions must be made as bombproof as possible. Additionally, the belayer must set up the belay in relation to where the fall force will come from and pay strict attention to proper rope management for the belay to be effective. All belay positions are established with the anchor connection to the front of the harness. If the belay is correctly established, the belayer will feel...
A Level Mountain Leader
Mountain leaders possess all the skills of the assault climber and have extensive practical experience in a variety of mountain environments in both winter and summer conditions. Level 3 mountaineers should have well-developed hazard evaluation and safe route finding skills over all types of mountainous terrain. Mountain leaders are best qualified to advise commanders on all aspects of mountain operations, particularly the preparation and leadership required to move units over technically...
Figure Glacier cross section
1 Firn is compacted granular snow that has been on the glacier at least one year. Firn is the building blocks of the ice that makes the glacier. 2 The accumulation zone is the area that remains snow-covered throughout the year because of year-round snowfall. The snowfall exceeds melt. 3 The ablation zone is the area where the snow melts off the ice in summer. Melt equals or exceeds snowfall. 4 The firn line separates the accumulation and ablation zones. As you approach this area, you may see...
Threeman Climbing Team
Often times a movement on steep terrain will require a team of more than two climbers, which involves more difficulties. A four-man team or more more than doubles the difficulty found in three men climbing together. A four-man team should be broken down into two groups of two unless prevented by a severe lack of gear. a. Given one rope, a three-man team is at a disadvantage on a steep, belayed climb. It takes at least twice as long to climb an average length pitch because of the third climber...
Zpulley System
The Z-pulley system is a simple, easily constructed hauling system Figure 7-26, page 7-30 . a. Considerations. Anchors must be sturdy and able to support the weight of the load. Site selection is governed by different factors tactical situation, weather, terrain, equipment, load weight, and availability of anchors. b. Theory. Use carabiners as a substitute if pulleys are not available. The mechanical advantage obtained in theory is 3 1. The less friction involved the greater the mechanical...
Section IV BELAY TECHNIQUES
Tying-in to the climbing rope and moving as a member of a rope team increases the climber's margin of safety on difficult, exposed terrain. In some instances, such as when traveling over snow-covered glaciers, rope team members can often move at the same time, relying on the security of a tight rope and team arrest techniques to halt a fall by any one member. On steep terrain, however, simultaneous movement only helps to ensure that if one climber falls, he will jerk the other rope team members...
CAUTION Xmr
The belayer must ensure he is wearing adequate clothing to protect his body from rope burns when using a body belay. Heavy duty cotton or leather work gloves can also be worn to protect the hands. 1 Sitting Body Belay. The sitting body belay is the preferred position and is usually the most secure Figure 6-22 . The belayer sits facing the direction where the force of a fall will likely come from, using terrain to his advantage, and attempts to brace both feet against the rock to support his...
Transport Knot Overhand Slip Knotmule Knot
The transport knot is used to secure the transport tightening system Figure 4-26, page 4-28 . It is simply an overhand slip knot. a. Tying the Knot. STEP 1. Pass the running end of the rope around the anchor point passing it back under the standing portion leading to the far side anchor forming a loop. STEP 2. Form a bight with the running end of the rope. Pass over the standing portion and down through the loop and dress it down toward the anchor point. STEP 3. Secure the knot by tying a half...
A Level Assault Climber
Assault climbers are responsible for the rigging, inspection, use, and operation of all basic rope systems. They are trained in additional rope management skills, knot tying, and belay and rappel techniques, as well as using specialized mountaineering equipment. Assault climbers are capable of rigging complex, multipoint anchors, and high-angle raising lowering systems. Level 2 qualification is required to supervise all high-risk training associated with Level 1. At a minimum, assault climbers...
Establishing A Belay
A belay can be established using either a direct or indirect connection. Each type has advantages and disadvantages. The choice will depend on the intended use of the belay. a. Direct Belay. The direct belay removes any possible forces from the belayer and places this force completely on the anchor. Used often for rescue installations or to bring a second climber up to a new belay position in conjunction with the Munter hitch, the belay can be placed above the belayer's stance, creating a...
Types Of Rappels
During military mountaineering operations, many types of rappels may be used. The following paragraphs describe some these rappels. a. Hasty Rappel Figure 7-4 . The hasty rappel is used only on moderate pitches. Its main advantage is that it is easier and faster than other methods. Gloves are worn to prevent rope burns. 1 Facing slightly sideways to the anchor, the rappeller places the ropes horizontally across his back. The hand nearest to the anchor is his guide hand, and the other is the...
Internet Web Sites
U.S. Army Publishing Agency http www.usapa.army.mil Army Doctrine and Training Digital Library http www.adtdl.army.mil acute mountain sickness, 2-6, 2-8, 2-21 anchors, 5-1 to 5-16 artificial, 5-8 to 5-15 bolts, 5-14, 5-16 illus chocks, 5-11 placement, 5-12, 5-13 illus deadman, 5-8 pitons, 5-9 hero loop, 5-10 illus placement, 5-9, 5-10 illus removal, 5-11 illus reusing, 5-11 spring-loaded camming device, 5-13, 5-14 illus natural, 5-1 boulders, 5-2 illus bushes and shrubs, 5-4 illus chockstones,...
Upulley System
The U-pulley system is another simple, easily-constructed hauling system Figure 7-27, page 7-32 . a. Considerations. Anchors must be sturdy and able to support the weight of the load. Site selection is governed by different factors tactical situation, weather, terrain, equipment, load weight, and availability of anchors. b. Theory. Use carabiners as a substitute if pulleys are not available. The mechanical advantage obtained in theory is 2 1. The less friction involved the greater the...
Recovery Of The Rappel Point
After almost all personnel have descended, only two personnel will remain at the top of the rappel point. They will be responsible for establishing a retrievable rappel. a. Establishing the Retrievable Rappel. To set up a retrievable rappel point, a climber must apply one of the following methods 1 Double the rope when the rappel is less than half the total length of the rope. Place the rope, with the bight formed by the midpoint, around the primary anchor. Join the tails of the rappel rope and...
b Check Points
1 There are two overhand knots in the front. 2 The ropes are not crossed between the legs. 3 A half hitch is formed on each hip. 4 Seat is secured with a square knot with overhand safeties on the non-brake hand side. 5 There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail after the overhand safeties are tied. 4-32. GUARDE KNOT The guarde knot ratchet knot, alpine clutch is a special purpose knot primarily used for hauling systems or rescue Figure 4-32 . The knot works in only one direction and cannot be reversed...
Rescue Systems
Rescue systems are indispensable when conducting rescue operations. A large number of soldiers will not always be available to help with a rescue. Using a mechanical advantage rescue system allows a minimal amount of rescuers to perform tasks that would take a larger number of people without it. a. Belay Assist. This system is used to bring a climber over a section that he is unable to climb, but will continue climbing once he is past the difficult section. 1 First, tie off the following...
Highaltitude Cerebral Edema
HACE is the accumulation of fluid in the brain, which results in swelling and a depression of brain function that may result in death. It is caused by a rapid ascent to altitude without progressive acclimatization. Prevention of HACE is the same as for HAPE. HAPE and HACE may occur in experienced, well-acclimated mountaineers without warning or obvious predisposing conditions. They can be fatal when the first symptoms occur, immediate descent is mandatory. a. Contributing factors include rapid...
Manual Carries
Personnel who are not seriously injured but cannot evacuate themselves may be assisted by fellow soldiers. Personnel who are injured and require prompt evacuation should not be forced to wait for mobile evacuation or special equipment. a. One-Man Carries. The basic carries taught in the Soldier's Manual of Common Tasks fireman's carry, two-hand, four-hand, saddleback, piggyback, pistol belt, and poncho litter are viable means of transporting injured personnel however, the mountainous terrain...
Wiremans Knot
The wireman's knot forms a single, fixed loop in the middle of the rope Figure 4-15, page 4-18 . It is a middle rope knot. a. Tying the Knot. STEP 1. When tying this knot, face the anchor that the tie-off system will be tied to. Take up the slack from the anchor, and wrap two turns around the left hand palm up from left to right. STEP 2. A loop of 30 centimeters is taken up in the second round turn to create the fixed loop of the knot. STEP 3. Name the wraps from the palm to the fingertips...
A Level Basic Mountaineer
The basic mountaineer should be a graduate of a basic mountaineering course and have the fundamental travel and climbing skills necessary to move safely and efficiently in mountainous terrain. These soldiers should be comfortable functioning in this environment and, under the supervision of qualified mountain leaders or assault climbers, can assist in the rigging and use of all basic rope installations. a. On technically difficult terrain, the basic mountaineer should be capable of performing...
Utilization 1
The rope bridge can be used to move personnel and equipment over obstacles. There are several methods of accomplishing this. a. Method of Crossing. If dry crossing is impossible, soldiers will use the rope bridge as a hand line. Preferably, all soldiers will tie a safety line and attach it to the rope installation as they cross. If the soldier must cross with his rucksack, he may wear it over both shoulders, although the preferred method is to place another carabiner into the top of the...
Weather Hazards
Weather conditions in the mountains may vary from one location to another as little as 10 kilometers apart. Approaching storms may be hard to spot if masked by local peaks. A clear, sunny day in July could turn into a snowstorm in less than an hour. Always pack some sort of emergency gear. a. Winds are stronger and more variable in the mountains as wind doubles in speed, the force quadruples. b. Precipitation occurs more on the windward side than the leeward side of ranges. This causes more...
Personal Hygiene And Sanitation
The principles of personal hygiene and sanitation that govern operations on low terrain also apply in the mountains. Commanders must conduct frequent inspections to ensure that personal habits of hygiene are not neglected. Standards must be maintained as a deterrent to disease, and as reinforcement to discipline and morale. a. Personal Hygiene. This is especially important in the high mountains, mainly during periods of cold weather. In freezing weather, the soldier may neglect washing due to...
Installation Using Transport Tightening System
The transport tightening system provides a mechanical advantage without requiring additional equipment. a. The rope must first be anchored on the far side of the obstacle. If crossing a stream, the swimmer must be belayed across. If crossing a ravine or gorge, crossing may involve rappelling and a roped climb. Once across, the swimmer climber will temporarily anchor the installation rope. b. One man on the near side ties a fixed-loop knot for example, wireman's, figure-eight slip knot...
Equalizing Anchors
Equalizing anchors are made up of more than one anchor point joined together so that the intended load is shared equally. This not only provides greater anchor strength, but also adds redundancy or backup because of the multiple points. a. Self-equalizing Anchor. A self-equalizing anchor will maintain an equal load on each individual point as the direction of pull changes Figure 5-18 . This is sometimes used in rappelling when the route must change left or right in the middle of the rappel. A...
a Tying the Knot 1
STEP 1. Tie an overhand knot in one of the ends. STEP 2. Feed the other end back through the knot, following the path of the first rope in reverse. STEP 3. Draw tight and pull all of the slack out of the knot. The remaining tails must extend at least 4 inches beyond the knot in both directions. 1 There are two overhand knots, one retracing the other. 2 There is no slack in the knot, and the working ends come out of the knot in opposite directions. 3 There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail. The...
Fixed Rope With Intermediate Anchors
Whenever the route varies from the fall line of the slope, the fixed rope must be anchored at intermediate anchor points Figure 7-3 . Intermediate anchor points should also be used on any long routes that exceed the length of a single rope. The use of intermediate anchor points creates independent sections and allows for changes in direction from one section to the next. The independent sections allow for more personnel to move on the fixed rope. This type of fixed rope is commonly used along...
Rock And Slope Types
Different types of rock and different slopes present different hazards. The following paragraphs discuss the characteristics and hazards of the different rocks and slopes. a. Granite. Granite produces fewer rockfalls, but jagged edges make pulling rope and raising equipment more difficult. Granite is abrasive and increases the danger of ropes or accessory cords being cut. Climbers must beware of large loose boulders. After a rain, granite dries quickly. Most climbing holds are found in cracks....
Improvised Harnesses
Without the use of a manufactured harness, many methods are still available for attaching oneself to a rope. Harnesses can be improvised using rope or webbing and knots. a. Swami Belt. The swami belt is a simple, belt-only harness created by wrapping rope or webbing around the waistline and securing the ends. One-inch webbing will provide more comfort. Although an effective swami belt can be assembled with a minimum of one wrap, at least two wraps are recommended for comfort, usually with...
Aid Climbing
When a route is too difficult to free climb and is unavoidable, if the correct equipment is available you might aid climb the route. Aid climbing consists of placing protection and putting full body weight on the piece. This allows you to hang solely on the protection you place, giving you the ability to ascend more difficult routes than you can free climb. Clean aid consists of using SLCDs and chocks, and is the simplest form of aid climbing. a. Equipment. Aid climbing can be accomplished with...
Tensionless Anchor
The tensionless anchor is used to anchor the rope on high-load installations such as bridging and traversing Figure 5-11, page 5-8 . The wraps of the rope around the anchor absorb the tension of the installation and keep the tension off the knot and carabiner. The anchor is usually tied with a minimum of four wraps, more if necessary, to absorb the tension. A smooth anchor may require several wraps, whereas a rough barked tree might only require a few. The rope is wrapped from top to bottom. A...
Lowangle Evacuation
Cliffs and ridges, which must be surmounted, are often encountered along the evacuation path. Raising operations place a greater load on all elements of the system than do lowering operations. Since all means of raising a victim pulley systems, hand winches, and power winches depend on mechanical advantage, it becomes easy to overstress and break anchors and hand ropes. Using mechanical raising systems tends to reduce the soldier's sensitivity to the size of the load. It becomes important to...
Safety Precautions
The following safety precautions should be observed when rock climbing. a. While ascending a seldom or never traveled route, you may encounter precariously perched rocks. If the rock will endanger your second, it may be possible to remove it from the route and trundle it, tossing it down. This is extremely dangerous to climbers below and should not be attempted unless you are absolutely sure no men are below. If you are not sure that the flight path is clear, do not do it. Never dislodge loose...